Purushartha

 

Purushartha (Sanskrit: पुरुषार्थ, IAST: Puruṣārtha) literally means "object(ive) of men".[1] It is a key concept in Hinduism, and refers to the four proper goals or aims of a human life. The four puruṣārthas are Dharma (righteousness, moral values), Artha(prosperity, economic values), Kama (pleasure, love, psychological values) and Moksha (liberation, spiritual values, self-realization).[2][3]

All four Purusharthas are important, but in cases of conflict, Dharma is considered more important than Artha or Kama in Hindu philosophy.[4][5] Moksha is considered the ultimate goal of human life.[6] At the same time, this is not a consensus among all Hindus, and many have different interpretations of the hierarchy, and even as to whether one should exist.

Historical Indian scholars recognized and debated the inherent tension between active pursuit of wealth (Artha) and pleasure (Kama), and renunciation of all wealth and pleasure for the sake of spiritual liberation (Moksha). They proposed "action with renunciation" or "craving-free, dharma-driven action", also called Nishkama Karma as a possible solution to the tension



Relative precedence between Artha, Kama and Dharma

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Ancient Indian literature emphasizes that dharma is foremost. If dharma is ignored, artha and kama – profit and pleasure respectively – lead to social chaos.[19] The GautamaDharmashastra, Apastamba Dharmasutra and Yājñavalkya Smṛti, as examples, all suggest that dharma comes first and is more important than artha and kama.[20]

Vatsyayana, the author of Kamasutra, recognizes relative value of three goals as follows: artha is more important and should precede kama, while dharma is more important and should precede both kama and artha.[13] Kautiliya's Arthashastra, however, argues that artha is the foundation for the other two. Without prosperity and security in society or at an individual level, both moral life and sensuality become difficult. Poverty breeds vice and hate, while prosperity breeds virtues and love, suggested Kautiliya.[19]Kautilya adds that all three are mutually connected, and one should not cease enjoying life, nor virtuous behavior, nor pursuit of wealth creation. Excessive pursuit of any one aspect of life with complete rejection of other two, harms all three including the one excessively pursued.[15]

Some[13][21] ancient Indian literature observe that the relative precedence of artha, kama and dharma are naturally different for different people and different age groups. In a baby or child, education and kama takes precedence; in youth kama and artha take precedence; while in old age dharma takes precedence.

The Epics such as the Mahabharata debate the relative precedence of dharma, artha, kama and moksha, through the different characters in Book 12, the Book of Peace.[22] Rishi Vidurasays dharma must take the highest precedence. Arjuna claims without profit and prosperity (artha), people's ability for dharma and kama fall apart. Bhima claims pleasure and sex (kama) come first, because without these there is no dharma, artha or moksha. Yudhishthira asserts dharma should always lead one, including in matters of artha and kama, but then admits balancing dharma, artha and kama is often confusing and difficult.[19] In another book, the Mahabharata suggests that morality, profit and pleasure – dharma, artha and kama – all three must go together for happiness:

Morality is well practiced by the good. Morality, however, is always afflicted by two things, the desire of Profit entertained by those that covet it, and the desire for Pleasure cherished by those that are wedded to it. Whoever without afflicting Morality and Profit, or Morality and Pleasure, or Pleasure and Profit, followeth all three - Morality, Profit and Pleasure - always succeeds in obtaining great happiness.

— The Mahabharata, Book 9.60[23]